The Consequences of Russian Imperial Policy in the North Caucasus and the Historical Tragedy of the Circassians

The large-scale military and political expansion carried out by the Russian Empire in the Caucasus from the mid-eighteenth century until the end of the nineteenth century fundamentally transformed the ethno-demographic structure of the North Caucasus. In particular, the destruction of a significant portion of the Circassian (Adyghe) population and their forced displacement to the Ottoman Empire during the Caucasian Wars of 1763–1864 remains a serious and controversial subject in modern historiography. These events are evaluated not only as a military conflict, but also as the collapse of a social structure, a process of forced migration, and the formation of a long-term diaspora. Contemporary historiography analyzes this process in the context of imperial expansion, colonial policy, and ethno-demographic transformation. A number of Western and post-Soviet scholars regard the Caucasian Wars as part of the Russian Empire’s centralized border security strategy.

The Azerbaijan Platform for Support to Ukraine for Democracy calls on the Azerbaijani people to commemorate May 21 together with the entire Circassian people as a Day of Remembrance and Hope. The date of May 21 carries particular symbolic meaning in the collective memory of the Circassians. It marks the official end of the Caucasian Wars in 1864 and is observed by many Circassian organizations as a national day of mourning.

“The mass destruction of the Circassians (Adyghe) and their forcible expulsion from their historical homeland constitutes genocide because it was the result of the state policy of the Russian Empire,” the Platform’s statement says. This position has become increasingly visible in international political discourse in recent years. Especially after the Russia–Ukraine war, debates in the post-Soviet space concerning the imperial past and policies of historical violence have intensified.

According to historical estimates, approximately 1.5–2.5 million Circassians lived in the western regions of the North Caucasus at the beginning of the nineteenth century. During the final phase of the Caucasian Wars, the military strategy of the Russian Empire focused not only on territorial control, but also on removing the local population from the region. As a result, alongside military operations, famine, and epidemics, a process of mass deportation to the Ottoman Empire unfolded. During this period, approximately 300,000–600,000 people lost their lives, while 800,000–1,200,000 were forcibly displaced. Overall estimates suggest that 70–90 percent of the Circassian population either perished or was expelled from its historical homeland. This process radically altered the ethnic map of the North Caucasus. Following these demographic changes, a new settlement policy was implemented in the region, and parts of the depopulated territories were resettled by Cossack communities and other population groups. These transformations had a long-term impact on the social and political balance of the region.

Differences in modern demographic reconstructions are largely explained by the absence of systematic census data, incomplete wartime records, and variations in the ethnic groups included under the term “Circassians.” For this reason, some historians advocate a more cautious statistical approach.

Historian Walter Richmond and other researchers interpret these events as the deliberate outcome of imperial policy, analyzing them in the context of mass deportation and ethnic cleansing. Some scholars, including historian Anssi Kullberg, regard the process as one of the early historical examples of what is now understood as ethnic cleansing. Other historians emphasize the broader context of nineteenth-century imperial warfare and approach the classification of these events as “genocide” more cautiously.

In modern international law, the concept of genocide is defined by the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. According to this framework, actions carried out with the intention of destroying, in whole or in part, an ethnic or national group may be considered genocide. Academic literature concerning the fate of the Circassians generally reflects two main approaches: one group of researchers interprets these events as genocide, while another regards them as the harsh consequences of nineteenth-century warfare and forced displacement. At the international legal level, there is no unanimous recognition of these events as genocide, although the topic occupies a prominent place in academic discussions. In contemporary genocide studies, these events are particularly examined within the context of colonial violence and imperial policy.

Within the framework of the United Nations Genocide Convention, the main point of debate concerns intent, state policy, and the existence of systematic mechanisms of destruction. Much of the legal controversy centers on how the concept of “intent” should be interpreted. Some legal scholars argue that direct evidence of an intention to physically exterminate a population is difficult to prove, while others maintain that deportation, destruction of living conditions, and mass death should be evaluated collectively.

The fate of the Circassians was not the only case of forced displacement in the North Caucasus. In later periods, the mass deportation of the Chechens and Ingush in 1944, the forced relocation of the Balkars and Karachays, and the mass deportation of the Crimean Tatars formed part of a similar policy. As a result of these actions, hundreds of thousands of people were forcibly removed from their homelands. Overall estimates indicate that approximately 700,000–850,000 people from the North Caucasus and Crimea were deported, while deaths are estimated at 150,000–250,000. These deportations were carried out during the Soviet era under the principle of “collective responsibility,” with entire peoples punished on accusations of collaboration with the Nazis. In subsequent years, the Soviet leadership officially acknowledged some deportation decisions as “illegal.”

The political interpretation of these events also varies. The Parliament of Georgia recognized the historical tragedy of the Circassians as genocide in 2011, while the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did so in 2025. Although these decisions are not legally binding, they are viewed as political and symbolic forms of “parliamentary recognition.” At the same time, several international organizations and human rights experts analyze the issue primarily as a matter of historical justice and collective memory.

Today, the Circassian diaspora mainly lives in Turkey, Jordan, and countries of the Middle East, raising issues related to the preservation of cultural identity, recognition of historical justice, and the right of repatriation. The formation of the diaspora was a direct result of the mass displacement process of the nineteenth century and created a social memory transmitted across generations. Diaspora communities continue to advocate for the preservation of cultural identity, restoration of language, and recognition of historical justice. It is estimated that millions of people of Circassian origin live in Turkey, making it the largest Circassian diaspora community in the world. At the same time, processes of assimilation and language loss remain among the major concerns of diaspora organizations.

One Circassian family living in Jordan describes its history in the following way: the older generation, while leaving the Caucasus, used to say, “One day we will return.” However, that return never happened. The family settled in Amman, learned a new language, and acquired new professions. Yet one ritual remains in every generation: each May, the family gathers to listen to Caucasian music and remember the names of the “lost villages.” This form of collective memory is considered one of the central elements of modern diaspora identity.

This represents an example of the intergenerational transmission of diaspora memory.

Overall, the historical tragedy of the Circassians is regarded as one of the most controversial and complex consequences of imperial expansion in the North Caucasus. In contemporary academic literature, these events are interpreted either as genocide, ethnic cleansing, or mass deportation resulting from war. Despite differing approaches, there is broad scholarly consensus that the events of the nineteenth century fundamentally transformed the ethnic and social structure of the region. Although debates continue regarding the political and legal interpretation of these events, in the collective memory of the peoples of the North Caucasus this process remains a profound historical trauma.